EVALUATION OF PLAY IN DESIGN FOR BEHAVIORAL CHANGE Essay

Assessment OF PLAY IN DESIGN FOR BEHAVIORAL CHANGE - Essay Example In any case, through the meeting there are the two slip-ups and enhancements that when all around secured would prompt a superior game structure that would suit all the viewpoints that would have been disregards in the past plan (Wolock et., al, 2010). It is hard to plan an ideal game without a preliminary form. Through picked up information on the examination nature it would be simpler for the specialist to think of points and destinations that should be considered when planning a game. This would decrease the normal errors which are evident even to the fans thus making a superior comprehension about the exploration in both quantitative and hypothetical way (Breakwell, 2006). Through examination strategy, the paper is planned for using the different viewpoints, for example, theory, research configuration, research approaches and information assortment to find out the necessities of play and structure through exploration philosophy (Ackermann, 2008). Fig1. Planning a game, Accessed f rom: http://moerg.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/img_1469.jpg?w=390&h=289, on sixth Nov 2011. Exploration Philosophy: Through the philosophical viewpoints it is significant that the fashioner understands the philosophical substance of the examination, for example the authenticity, positivism and interpretive. These components will decide the impacts of the players and the crowd. ... Exploration Strategies: According to Wolock et., al, (2010), so as to accomplish any analyst needs to plan on the best technique to utilize which relies upon the necessities of the examination structure and play. There are powerful exploration systems like information assortment assets, research goals and approaches that would improve the accomplishment of examination venture inside, as far as possible and extent of examination (Archer, 1993). Taking a shot at viable examination forms incorporates yet not restricted to contextual investigation, interviews, tests, perceptions, studies and writing survey. These variables draw out a more extensive recognition and exploration trustworthiness inside the activities that were overseen as indicated by the trial examination (Hourcade, 2008). Information Collection Through proper information assortment strategy, the scientist would accomplish a decent play plan with legitimate and solid information and data. The scientist ought to include both essential and optional information assortment techniques (Ackermann, 2008). The essential date assortment strategies should be possible through direct data got from reviews and meetings led legitimately between the questioner and the interviewee. This lessens odds of passing on immaterial data as the questioner would have the option to examine the interviewee to get more data (Breakwell, 2006). The optional information assortment technique incorporates perusing from diaries, books and scholarly articles desire to make reference to. When the two techniques for information assortment are conduce about the play structure, examination should be possible to discover the necessary data to be executed on the play configuration (Bell, 2006) Needs and Pleasures  In request to accomplish research plan; we need to consider the plan practice itself. From the outset

Climate Change Fact or Fiction Free Essays

Climate can be characterized as the condition of the environment including developments of vitality like breeze and precipitation. Atmosphere is the for the most part winning climate examples of an area. The atmosphere of an area is comprised of the diverse climate designs. We will compose a custom article test on Environmental Change: Fact or Fiction or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now The climate designs are generally monotonous as indicated by the seasons. Where I’m from in southwest Nebraska it snows in the winter, rains in the spring, and is blistering in the late spring. The inquiry is, has the climate and atmosphere consistently been similar to this in Nebraska? We have verification that atmosphere has changed previously. Seventy million years back there may have not been any ice on the North Pole. The locale was doubtlessly canvassed in timberland. The astounding piece of this speculation is that without the polar ice tops the sea levels would associate with seventy meter higher than they are currently. Researcher likewise realize that the world was in its latest ice age around 2. 6 million years prior. On the off chance that the North Pole went from woodland to ice sixty-8,000,000 years, clearly the world has seen extraordinary changes previously. This brings up the issue of whether this could transpire once more. Could the increments in temperature that everyone credits to a worldwide temperature alteration simply be a characteristic pattern of the planets atmosphere? The vast majority think not. The intelligent response for the consistent increment in temperature is a worldwide temperature alteration because of the â€Å"Greenhouse Effect†. The Greenhouse Effect is brought about by an expansion in the grouping of â€Å"greenhouse gasses† in the air. The absolute most overwhelm nursery gasses are Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, and Water fume. A few people may contend that these gasses are found normally in the environment. The centralization of the gasses could be expanding because of normal components. The climate might be holding these gasses in for an obscure explanation, or the earth might be delivering higher fixations normally. This hypothesis is impossible as indicated by information recorded in past years. Ice centers show that the grouping of carbon dioxide in the climate has expanded drastically since the mechanical upheaval. It’s no incident that an Earth-wide temperature boost began turning out to be observable a similar time people began gathering petroleum derivatives. Consuming, mining, and preparing non-renewable energy sources are the fundamental driver of the expansion in gas discharges. As indicated by Peter Singers book One World, the logical proof that human exercises are changing the atmosphere of our planet has been concentrated by the IPCC so as to give strategy creators a definitive perspective on environmental change and its causes. (Pg. 15) The â€Å"Third Assessment Report† discharged by the IPCC in 2001 found that our planet has given away from of warming over the previous century. Since 1960 day off ice spread has diminished by around 10%, and mountain ice sheets are in retreat wherever aside from close to the shafts. Resembling the adjustments in the atmosphere is an extraordinary increment in the grouping of nursery gasses in the climate. This expansion is created by human exercises, for example, consuming petroleum products, the freeing from vegetation, and on account of methane, cows and rice creation. Not for at any rate the last 400 and twenty years has there been so much carbon dioxide and methane in the air. Pg. 15-16) What will occur in the event that we keep on radiating expanding measures of gasses into the climate, and an Earth-wide temperature boost keeps on expanding? As per the Third Assessment Report, somewhere in the range of 1990 and 2100, normal worldwide temperatures will ascend by in any event 1. 4 °C, and by as much as 5. 8 °C. In spite of the fact that these normal ascents in temperature may appear to be little, even a 1 °C ascent in the normal temperature would be more prominent than any change that has happened in a solitary century in the previous ten-thousand years. In addition, some provincial changes will be increasingly outrageous and are substantially more hard to foresee. (Pg. 16-17) If the normal temperature of a significant rural locale was to rise 5 °C all the prevailing yields in the region may not be appropriate for the area any longer and major financial defeat could result. Since everyone on the planet knows about the reason for an unnatural weather change, the inquiry emerges, what are we expected to do? I accept the best and best response to that question is diminish the measure of vitality that we use. The first and most straightforward advance is to lessen your capacity utilization. Making power is perhaps the biggest utilization of petroleum products which implies the less force made, the less non-renewable energy sources utilized. Everyone can utilize less force by just killing lights and unplugging machines when not being used. Most apparatuses keep on expending power much after they have been killed, if everyone just unplugged their hardware or turned off the electrical extension vitality would turn into significantly progressively reasonable. Another colossal issue with the world is autos. While the vast majority love their vehicles and don’t need to lose the opportunity to go anyplace their musings may be changed when they take a gander at all the negatives vehicles produce. To start with, is constantly, vitality, and assets used to make a vehicle. Most vehicle parts are produced using extra metals and minerals and afterward transported over the globe. This not just uses up mineral saves in the creation of the parts however expends a lot of oil vitality in the transportation procedure. At that point, as everyone realizes every one of these vehicles expend enormous measures of vitality as gas each day, this will exhaust our oil gracefully in a matter of moments. Vehicles likewise need streets to drive on. Streets are the main buyer of the United States mineral assets, and the take up extremely a lot of room in urban communities and horticultural regions. Individuals in urban areas can ride the transport and everyone can ride the train on significant distance trips. On the off chance that we could all slice the sum we drive down the middle the manageability of a large number of the world’s assets would increment significantly. Killing your lights and taking the transport aren’t the main way individuals can lessen the measure of nursery gasses they contribute. Production lines produce a lot of contaminations consistently. Processing plant items can likewise add to air contamination since everything made expects assets to be delivered. What's more, after an item is spent it becomes squander and should be discarded somehow or another. We can bring down the measure of waste that is being placed into landfills by purchasing products that aren’t over bundled. Numerous products are energized with enormous and extravagant bundling yet at long last individuals simply discard the bundle. In the event that a similar item can be bought in a littler bundle it will cost less and occupy less room as waste. Customers should attempt to purchase new create from nearby stores. While new merchandise are not for the most part over bundled, purchasing nearby additionally assists with eliminating the measure of transportation and the vitality squandered while the thing was put away in huge stockrooms. Another progression in the ecological protection process is to reuse everything conceivable. This is more effectively said than accomplished for a great many people however it is turning out to be simpler and increasingly advantageous constantly. Reusing containers are springing up all over in helpful areas and the motivating forces to reuse are getting more noteworthy constantly. It isn’t that difficult to isolate effectively recyclable materials like jars and jugs in your home and take them to the correct reusing focus. Another simple was to reuse is take your plastic shopping sacks back for reusing or get a reusable pack. On the off chance that assets are saved, at that point normally the measure of gasses being discharged into the air will be diminished. Taking everything into account, an Earth-wide temperature boost is a significant worldwide issue. On the off chance that an adequate cure isn’t discovered soon enough the world may never be the equivalent. Finding a way to bend the ascent of an Earth-wide temperature boost is simpler than the vast majority think. Step by step instructions to refer to Climate Change: Fact or Fiction, Papers

Relapses in Bulimia Recovery

Relapses in Bulimia Recovery Eating Disorders Diagnosis Print Relapses in Bulimia Recovery By Lauren Muhlheim, PsyD, CEDS facebook twitter linkedin Lauren Muhlheim, PsyD, is a certified eating disorders expert and clinical psychologist who provides cognitive behavioral psychotherapy. Learn about our editorial policy Lauren Muhlheim, PsyD, CEDS Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS on January 28, 2020 Rachel Goldman, PhD FTOS is a licensed psychologist, clinical assistant professor, speaker, wellness expert specializing in weight management and eating behaviors.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Rachel Goldman, PhD, FTOS on January 28, 2020 Rob Lewine / Getty Images More in Eating Disorders Diagnosis Symptoms Treatment Awareness and Prevention In This Article Table of Contents Expand Looking at Statistics Measuring Stress Speaking With a Doctor View All Back To Top Relapses happen and are discouraging when they do. However, they don’t mean that you’ve failed or that you won’t ever be fully recovered. These setbacks are actually a normal part of the recovery process and offer the opportunity for both learning and strengthening recovery. Let’s first define the terms: A lapse or slip is the occurrence of a minor symptom while a relapse refers to a recurrence of frequent binge eating or purging. Because a lapse is a single event it does not necessarily lead to a relapse. Additionally, how one responds to a lapse plays a big role in whether it becomes a relapse. Looking at Statistics If you have experienced a relapse, you are in good company. Relapse rates for clients successfully treated for bulimia nervosa range from 31% to 44% during the first two years of recovery. Some studies have tried to identify features of the client that predict relapse (such as calorie restriction, symptoms at discharge, and body image disturbance); however, in my clinical experience, I’ve come to believe that a more helpful line of research might be looking at the contribution of stressful life events to physical and psychological symptomatology (and relapses). A study by Grilo and colleagues (2012) examined the relationship between stressful life events and relapse among patients with bulimia nervosa and eating disorder not otherwise specified (AKA EDNOS, the category now known as other specified eating disorder). In this study, researchers administered the Life Events Assessment, an instrument that assesses 59 negative events and 23 positive events categorized into stress domains including work, school, social/friendship, love, family, health, and financial. The results showed: Negative stressful life events, in particular, higher work stress (e.g., serious difficulties at work; laid off or fired) and higher social stress (e.g., broke up with or lost a friend), increase the likelihood of relapse. Measuring Stress In my clinical work with clients dealing with lapses and relapses, I find it helpful to look at a similar instrument, The social readjustment rating scale, a checklist of 43 stressful life events. This measure was published in 1967 by Holmes and Rahe. The purpose of the inventory was to catalog environmental events that had been identified in patients’ charts as frequently preceding the onset of psychiatric illness. A panel of judges assigned Life Change Unit (LCU) scales to these events. The scale included such events such as: death of a spouse (assigned the highest LCU score of 100), death of a close family member (63), pregnancy (40), change in financial state (38), and child leaving home (29). Even events normally  considered positive, such as marriage (50), are included because each is often associated with stress. When they published the scale, Holmes and Rahe reported that events were additive. Thus, if your spouse died and left you with no income and a child left home at the same time, your LCU score would be 1004029 169. The researchers stated that a score over 300 put someone at risk of illness. A score of 150 to 299 indicates moderate risk of illness (30% less than the higher category). A score below 150 is associated with only a slight risk of illness. The Holmes-Rahe model has been criticized primarily for its failure to take individual differences into consideration. The scale assumes that each stressor affects people the same way, which is not necessarily true; for example, some people may find divorce extremely stressful, while for others it can be a relief. Speaking With a Doctor While it may not be a psychometrically sound instrument, I nevertheless find it useful clinically to help clients understand when and why relapses may have occurred. The quantification of life events helps clients to see stressors to which they may have given little attention. Its important to speak with your doctor or healthcare professional about the specific stressors in your life, so you can better pinpoint the moments youre most susceptible to reverting to bulimic behavior. Bulimia Discussion Guide Get our printable guide for your next doctors appointment to help you ask the right questions. Download PDF If you have had a relapse recently, it is worth checking out this measure, which can be self-administered, and considering whether you can identify recent stressors in your life. Often when clients experience a return of symptoms, it is following stressful life events and/or transitions such as going to college or starting a new job. This is not surprisingâ€"entrenched maladaptive behaviors come back when one feels overloaded or facing an unfamiliar environment and newer healthier coping skills have not yet become as ingrained. If you have had a recent relapse it is important to review what has happened and make a plan to get back on track. How you respond to a lapse or relapse is actually more important than that the lapse occurred. Addressing it early and diligently can prevent a single lapse from becoming a relapse or from truly derailing your recovery. What to Do After a Relapse Recognize and acknowledge that the lapse or relapse has happenedDon’t beat yourself up; practice self-compassionResolve to get back on track.Reach out for help from your support network and/or treatment team.Try to identify what factors contributed to the lapse/relapse and how you can handle similar triggering situations in the future.  Identify what techniques and coping strategies that helped you with recovery in the past you could employ again (e.g. completing food records, more diligent meal planning, etc.).  Consider going back to treatment maybe even for a booster session or two. In most cases, treatment following a lapse or relapse is briefer than the original treatment, and soon you are likely to be well back on the recovery path.   Why Its Critical to Prioritize Eating Disorder Recovery

Dimension Of Financial And Management Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3238 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? This research focuses on three different dimension of Financial and management accounting. in the first part it gives a clear picture of company law and professional accounting frameworks which can be used to make financial reports of different companies comparable and reliable. Furthermore, the second given question was Discounted Cash flow and its importance for the business investment appraisal. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Dimension Of Financial And Management Finance Essay" essay for you Create order Lastly, the third part of this research assignment is discussing the importance of profitability and liquidity and how a business can manage its working capital to reduce the risk of short term liquidity problems. An introduction to each mentioned topic is given in the following separate paragraphs. Financial statements are the sum or conclusion of the performance of a company over a specified span of time which as a result, represents a clear financial status of a company. There are different types of financial reports which are created by a company, but the major reports are: The Balance Sheet, Profit and Loss Statement and Statement of Cash flow. In order to make different companies financial report comparable there has to be a certain rules which should be followed by all companies. These rules are some forced by government in which all companies are being entitled to obey certain rules while preparing the reports. In UK, all companies must act in accordance with provisions the Companies Act 1985. In addition to company law, companies which are listed on stock exchange are required to follow Stock exchange rules and other professional accounting framework such as IFRS. (Atrill, P and Mclaney, E. 2005) Discounted cash flow is very useful techniques which are used in a wide variety of businesses. Mortgage loan are one of the best examples. Therefore, Discounted Cash flow (DCF) techniques are much preferred by the companies while making investment decisions. As an illustration, DCF analysis is a capital budgeting practice which is used to analyze and quantify the receipt and payment of a particular project or business venture. DCF methods are given preference in investment decisions because it takes in the account the importance of time value of money and amount of risk involved in acceptance of a project. (Ramagopal, C. 2008) Liquidity and profitability are equally important for existence of a company. A company which cannot pay its creditor on time or cannot meet its short term expenditures will easily become insolvent or bankrupt. On the other hand, Profitability is the amount of revenue exceed from its relevant expense. Therefore, both profitability and liquidity are equally important factor for survival of a business. Working capital is the difference between current asset and current liability. Management of working capital can reduce the risk of liquidity problems in the short run for a company. (Avadhani,V.A. 2010) Professional and Legal Regulatory Framework of Accounting (Task 1) Financial Reports and Accounting Frameworks: Financial statements are used to make fair decision by various numbers of users. Therefore, the major users of financial reports are classified into: Employees, Present and Potential Investor, Lenders, Customers, Suppliers and other trade payables, Government, and The Public. The objective of financial reports is to provide necessary and objective information about the company performance in order to allow users make sound economic decisions. (Atrill, P and Mclaney, E. 2005) Financial statements are the overall conclusion of the performance of a company over a specified span of time which as a result, represents a clear position of a company. There are various types of financial reports which are prepared by a company, but the major reports are: The Balance Sheet, Statement of Cash flow, Profit and Loss Statement, and The statement of changes in equity. (Atrill, P and Mclaney, E. 2011) UK Government Accounting Standards Untitled.png Source: Catalogue Pearsoned. 02.09.2013 In order to make different companies financial report comparable there has to be a certain rules which should be followed by all companies. These rules are some forced by government in which all companies are being entitled to obey certain rules while preparing the reports. In UK, all companies must act in accordance with provisions the Companies Act 1985 (CA 1985) which is now changed to Companies Act 2006. Under the mentioned Act, every company is entitled to present their Balance sheet and Income statement at the end of each financial year with true and clear vision. In addition, companies, under Schedule 4 of CA 1985, are further restricted to follow certain format and provide additional information by way of notes. Moreover, Companies in UK should also comply with Financial Reporting Standard and other professional guidance. And these are: Accounting Standards: these are comprised of Financial Reporting Standard (FRS) and Statement of Standard Accounting Practice (SSAPs) which have been issued and adopted by Accounting Standard Boards (ASB). Majority of companies apply these two standards. Financial Reporting Standard for Smaller Entities (FRSSE): this sum up all accounting format which UK small entities are restricted to follow. International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS): these are issued by International Accounting Standard Board (IASB). All UK Stock exchange listed companies are required to follow this standard. However, unincorporated companies are exempt from IFRS accounting regulations. Limitation of Financial Reports: Although Legal and professional accounting framework are designed to meet quality factors (Relevance, reliable, objective, and comparable), but still there are some limitations attached to financial reports which cannot be ignored. And these limitations are: Conventionalized representation: Business are different in their nature and financial reports are prepared in a highly standardized way. This can limit usefulness and comparability of information. In addition, users often find difficult to understand the component of business since financial reports are highly aggregated. This means several information is combined together and presented in a very few figures which often users struggle to find their correct path. In addition, Standards are basically general purpose which ignores to identify the difference between large and small entities. (Elliot Barry, Elliott Jamie. 2008) Adverse allocative effects: this can occur if economic consequences as a result of standard regulation are not taken into account by standard setters. For example, preparing such reports in accordance with standard may cost companies higher than their normal reporting system. Now this can affect the company profitability which can be regarded as an adverse effect. (Elliott Barry, Elliott Jamie. 2008) Backward-Looking: Users are interested in future and certainties however, financial reports are based on past events and provide information which has already affected the company. Non-Financial information: financial statements do not take into account non-financial factors. This factors could highly affect a company performance. Such as: Business risk and opportunities, Management policies, company performance and prospects analysis, and description of the business major operation. Other information: basically some companies provide additional information along with its financial report. This additional information is not always relevant to most users is most of the cases. And this could further affect objective and comparability of financial reports. Discounted Cash flow and its importance in investment decisions (TASK 2) Companies need to invest in projects in order to expand their business activities and become leader in the market by increasing their market share. Since there are various techniques which are used to analyze an investment decisions, Discounted Cash flow (DCF) techniques are much preferred by the companies while making investment decisions. In other word, DCF analysis is a capital budgeting practice which is used to analyze and quantify the receipt and payment of a particular project or business venture. DCF methods are given preference in investment decisions because it takes in the account the importance of time value of money and amount of risk involved in acceptance of a project. Time Value of Money: The concept of Time value of money is based on the fact that a pound received today has higher value than a pound received next day. Even a child prefers todayacirc;s enjoyment than waiting for tomorrow. According to Ramagopal, C. (Financial Management. 2008) there are several factors which support the concept that Money has time value. Risk and Uncertainity: there is risk and uncertainities always involved in future. Out flows are in a company control but there are is no any gurantee for future cash inflow. Thus a pound today is regarded to have higher value than a pound in future. Present Need are more important: businesses generally prefer current expenditure and consumption. Opportunity to invest: an individual or a business can invest money today so that they could gain benefit of Interest or profit as a result of their investment. Inflation: Inflation in an economy will decrease the money purchasing power. Most government have structural inflation which is fixed every year thus a pound received next year will have much less purchasing power than a pound received today. To make this concept more clear let suppose that 100 pound is invested today in a bank with a return of 10% interest rate each year. At the end of year one the interest which will be paid for initial investment is 10 pound and the total amount will be 110 pounds. Therefore the value of 110 pounds to be received after a year is equivalent to the value of 100 pound received today. Discounted cash flow are very useful techniques which is used in a wide variety of businesses. Mortgage loan are one of the best examples. Interestingly, DCF methods can also be used by Investors while purchasing companies stocks. In addition, Managers use this method to identify potential investment decisions or choose the best investment decision among several projects. The overall application of DCF methods is to convert future cash flows into present value by discounting these cash flows at the rate of company cost of capital. (Kern, Andy. 2010. The importance of DCF Valuation) For example, we purchase a 20 year debenture on the day it issued on the market at face value price. So when we purchased this debenture, in fact we invested on this company and over the period of 20 years we expect to receive an amount greater than the value we purchased. Therefore, the value of this debenture today is calculated by discounting the value of principal and interest to be received over the period of 20 years. Or in other word, the value of today debenture equal to the sum of discounted value of interest and principal payment it will make over the 20 years. Advantages of Discounted Cash Flow It can be used to identify the value of a business as whole or also it can be used to determine the value of a specific project or component of a business that can be added to the overall value of business after conducting certain investments. It is simple and easy to calculate and understand. But it can be modified to deal with complex structure. In addition, both equity shareholders and investor can use this model to appraise investment. Investor can use DCF techniques to discount the value of shares or debenture in to current amount and calculate the amount of interest they earn over period of time. Meanwhile, companies can also use DCF method to evaluate investment decisions and make proper and sound investment in projects so that the value of the company is encouraged if the NPV or IRR is greater than cost of capital. Profitability VS Liquidity and Working Capital Management to Reduce Liquidity Problems (Task 3) Liquidity and its importance for business survival: Liquidity is generally referred to the ability of an entity to meet its short term obligation or in other word the ability of a company to convert assets into cash. The term short term is basically known as those obligation which matures within one year period of time. Short term is also sometimes regarded as operating cycle: buying, manufacturing, selling and collecting. Liquidity is very much equally important for existence of a company. A company which cannot pay its creditor on time or cannot meet its short term expenditures will easily become insolvent or bankrupt. Moreover, companies operation and reputation will be in huge danger if the firm is unable to meet its short term obligation. Lack of sufficient cash on hand may affect company to lose some incentives from suppliers which will result in higher cost of goods or services. Thus, higher cost will result in less amount of turnover and profit. Therefore, companies always consider liquidity as an important factor and they always try to retain sufficient amount of liquidity. Nevertheless, there is not any standard procedure with regard to company liquidity requirement but mostly it depends on nature of business, location of the business, scale of operation and so on. (Avadhani,V.A. 2010) Liquidity is one of the major concerns for users while making any sort of deal with the company. Every stakeholder is interested in companies which has higher liquidity. Suppliers will only deal with the company when they know that their money will be received in specified time and the company is able to provide money for their good and services provided. Shareholders are interested in profitability, however they know higher liquidity will give the company the opportunity to get incentives from suppliers which will result in lower cost of goods and services and finally higher profit and dividend or capital gain. Lastly, Bank and other financial institutions always consider companies liquidity position before signing any sort of contract or loan agreement. The liquidity position of a company can easily be understood by looking at it financial statements. Current asset and current liability are the areas which locate the company liquidity position. In order to understand the liquidity position of a company, a number of ratios can be used. These majors are Current Ratio and Quick Ratio. (Singh, Y.P. 2007) Profitability and its Importance for business survival: Profitability is the amount of revenue exceed from its relevant expense. Generally both profitability and liquidity are equally important factor for survival of a business. However in the short run a business need to be liquid enough to proceed with its operation but in the long run profitability comes into consideration. Business which are not profitable in the long run will just simply become insolvent. There is an inverse relationship between profitability and liquidity. The higher profitability the less liquid will be the company. This can best described in the following example: If the asset side of a company balance sheet is arranged in a sequence of liquidity, we will get the following order. So if we see the above order, as we go from top to bottom the liquidity decreases. However, profitability is totally vice versa. Fixed assets are more profitable for the companies as compare to receivables, securities and cash. Higher liquidity will result in lower risk and lower profit. However, lower liquidity will result in higher risk and higher return. As a result, there is a trade off between profitability and liquidity. Therefore, the role of managers become more dominant to set certain targets which could achieve both partially so that the business can maximize its profit while meeting its obligation successfully. Working Capital Management to reduce risk of Liquidity problems: Working capital is the difference between current asset and current liability. And this helps us to understand the position of a company from liquidity point of view. Based on the above definition, working capital of a company can take one of the following forms. Positive working capital: current asset is greater than current liability Negative working capital: current asset is less than current liability Zero working capital: when current asset equals current liability It is generally accepted that higher the positive working capital, better will be the firm liquidity position.Furthermore, managing working capital is not just related to current asset and current liability but it also relies on fixed assets and long term funds. (Satyaprasad, B.G. Raghu, G.A. 2010) Factors which determine working capital: There are various factors which determine the amount or level of working capital for a particular business. These factors are positioned in the following diagram:11.png Source: Satyaprasad, B.G. Raghu, G.A. 2010 Financing of Working Capital and Liquidity: Once the size of working capital is determined, then the management of the company need to decide the financing of working capital. There are three major policies to finance working capital called conservative policy (Approach A), Average policy (Approach B), and Aggressive policy (Approach C). If a company invest huge amount of money on current asset rather than fixed asset then it is considering conservative approach. Similarly, if the business invest average in current asset then it follows Average working capital approach. Finally, if the business is investing very less on current asset or in other word, business consider its focus on investing heavily on fixed assets then it said to be Aggressive policy or approach. These approaches are best described in the following diagram. (Satyaprasad, B.G. Raghu, G.A. 2010)1212.png Source: Satyaprasad, B.G. Raghu, G.A. 2010 Working capital management is also referred to operating efficiency. It all about How efficient the management of a firm could manage its inventory, receivable and payables to reduce short term liquidity problems. The best operating firms never want to have inventory sitting idly in a warehouse for months or years, and at the same time they never run out of product when it comes to selling point of view. Companies are on buying products, raw material from suppliers on credit term and the more the period available to pay off its debt for a company, the lesser liquidity problems will arise. Similarly, companies sell products or services to customer. The period of time the company receive their money from customer also have a huge impact on the liquidity of a firm. Therefore, Companies need to consider several ratios such as Inventory turnover, payable turnover, and receivable turnover in order to reduce the risk of liquidity. Nevertheless, operating efficiency and ratio analysis reduce the liquidity problems in short period of time. (Money-Zine. 07.02.2013) REFRENCES Atrill Peter, McLaney Eddie. (2011). Financial Accounting for decision Makers, sixth edition. Published by Pearson Education Limited Avadhani, V.A. (2010). International Financial Management. Management of Longterm International Financing. Published by. Himalaya Publishing House Catalogue Pearsoned. Accounting Rules and Regulation. Accessed by 02.09.2013. followed by https://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/assets/hip/gb/hip_gb_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/Dysonch2.pdf Elliott. B and Elliott. J. (2008). Financial Accounting and Reporting 12th Edition. Finch Clare. (2008). A studentacirc;s guide to International Financial Reporting Standards Second Edition. Published by: Kaplan Publishing UK Kern Andy. (2010). Transparent Value See the Market Clearly. The Importance of Discounted Cash Flow Valuation. Retrieved from https://www.rbpinstitute.com/PDFs/how-is-rbp-used/The%20Importance%20of%20Discounted%20Cash%20Flow%20Valuation.pdf Money-Zine. Effeciency Ratios. Accessed by: 07.02.2013. followed by: https://www.money-zine.com/Investing/Investing/Efficiency-Ratios/ Satyaprasad, B.G. Raghu, G.A. (2010). Advanced Financial Management. Working Capital Management. Published by Hamalaya Publishing House Sharma, S.P. (2008). Advanced Financial Management : Modern Methods and Techniques. Published by Paradise Publisher Singh, Y.P. (2007). Accounting and Financial Management for I.T. professionals. Published by New Age International. Pp 120-130. Ramagopal, C. (2008). Financial Management. Published by New Age International Bibliography: Desai, Vasant. (2009). Financial Markets and Financial Services. Published by: Himalaya Publishing House Financing Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (2008): An Independent Evaluation of IFCs Experience with Financial Intermediaries in Frontier Countries. International Financial Corporation. Published by World Bank publication. Gordon, E. Natarajan, K. (2010). Financial Markets. Published by Himalaya Publishing House Koutmos, Gregory. (2007). European Financial Markets. Published by: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd Smith, Barry. (2010). Introductory Financial Accounting. Published by: Open University Press. Temte, Andrew. (2005). Financial Statement Analysis. Published by: Dearborn Trade, A Kaplan Professional Company

Theories of Teaching and Learning and their Impact on the...

Theories of Teaching and Learning and their Impact on the Classroom Environment Although there are many theories of teaching and learning, this essay will be focusing primarily on professionalism, cognition and language, cognitive views of learning and behaviourism, and how they individually and collectively impact the classroom environment. A professional teacher encompasses essential characteristics to teach at their highest level. They continue to learn throughout their teaching careers and constantly assess themselves and their students. Professionals also have the ability to make decisions in ill defined situations (Eggen Kauchak, 2010, p. 5) , showing their knowledge and understanding of their students, teaching and the†¦show more content†¦The way students think about the world they live depends on their maturity and perhaps even more significantly on their experiences (Eggen Kauchak, 2010. p. 20) . This is all connected to development, and the three factors affect ing development, namely, experience, learning and maturation. It is why younger students dont comprehend to the extent of older students, or why through experience, a student may know more than his or her peers. It is referred to as cognitive development. When the human brain and cognitive development are explored we can see why maturation is so important to a students learning and understanding. To understand cognitive development more accurately, a deeper and explanation of how the brain deals with provided stimuli, and also why maturation has such an impact on learning is needed. The brain contains neurons that are made up of dendrites and axons. Dendrites are a part of neurons that receive messages from other neurons, these make up the learning capabilities of the brain. Axons are components of neurons that transmit outgoing messages to other neurons. To allow these messages to be transmitted there are tiny spaces between the neurons called synapses. Explaining this further, y oung childrens brains create new synapses for very new experience they encounter, however, as they grow, and information is correlated, only the ones needed remain. If the brain is stimulated it will retain moreShow MoreRelatedLearning Is Viewed As One Of The Most Important Interactive Activities1643 Words   |  7 Pages Learning Theory Paper Kimberlyn Boddie EDUC 2130: Teaching Learning Professor: George Darden November 1, 2015 Learning is viewed as one of the most important interactive activities in which children engage. Although most learning occurs outside of the school setting, it is the heart of the educational process. Psychologists and philosophers searched to understand the true nature of learning, why and how learning occurs at different stages in life and how it can haveRead MoreAed 200 Classroom Mgmt Paper1027 Words   |  5 PagesAssignment: Classroom Management Paper June 6, 2010 Aaronita J Morgan AED/200 Instructor: Junett Johnston The principles of behaviorism can be useful in facilitating learning within the classroom. Behaviorism offers a particular perspective on how learning occurs and how teaching impacts that process. B.F. Skinner argued that, â€Å"A behavior is more likely to reoccur if it has been reinforced or rewarded. Thus reinforcement can be used to strengthen existing behaviors, asRead MoreCritical Thinking And Problem Solving Skills1648 Words   |  7 Pageswith the integration of learning theories, pedagogies, transformative learning spaces, behavioural management and most importantly; the evolution and role of technology. 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Mission and VisionRead MoreTheories Within the Classroom Environment Essay1477 Words   |  6 PagesThe foundation of a classroom setting is based on theories that enhance student learning, have a positive impact on the classroom environment and may â€Å"provide valuable guidance for teachers† (Cooper, 2006, cited in Eggen and Kauchak, 2010). Even though teaching is about what a student is taught, there are certain practises that are used to get the most out of students without the student realising. Experts in the field have developed different theories that aim to provide an answer as to how andRead MoreTeaching Philosophy, Theories, And Pedagogies Work For Your Teaching Style Essay1618 Words   |  7 Pagesdiscover what teaching philosophy, theories, and pedagogies work for your teaching style. â€Å"The best way to teach† is unique to each individual teacher. Even so, there are some aspects of teaching that are important to being an effective teacher. 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Bric Free Essays

The emerging economics, the so-called BRICs: Brazil, Russia, India, and China are predicated to be global players in next few decades. In being the world’s top global players these countries must realize that in order to become a true global power they will have to take on greater social responsibilities that will deal with ethical concerns. An increasing number of companies are moving production to the BRICs in order to take advantage of generous tax incentives, high productivity rates, and cheap labor. We will write a custom essay sample on Bric or any similar topic only for you Order Now For example, Wal-Mart and Bharti Enterprises, a leading Indian cell phone operator, plan to open hundreds of Wal-Mart superstores across India by 2010 (International Business Environments and Operations, Applegate, Austin, and Soule 2009 pp. 219). However, with the BRICs emerging as economic powerhouses and the increasing number of foreign counties increasing to do business with them ethical rules must integrate into their business practices for the BRICs to have an impact on the whole world. Brazil has been an aspiring contender in the up and coming emerging counties but it has been struggling for decades because it has struggled to achieve expectations due to problems in income equality, productivity, and education. In order to obtain the status as one of the world’s leaders these social responsibilities must be addressed and corrected. The emergence of the BRICswill challenge the well-being and sustainability of the global environment. China is one of the pillars of the global economy, but controversies surround China’s future growth because of the controversy surrounding Chinese labor practices or tainted imports traced back to Chinese suppliers. In addition to the surrounding labor and tainted imports our Western-centric view of the world and current media restrictions in China the world’s largest country remains mysterious in many ways. Because of this, the development of a greater focus on corporate social responsibility in China has gone somewhat unnoticed. Chinese government has acted with some hesitancy in years past to fully embrace a more updated idea of corporate social responsibility because of fears such as added costs to exporting goods; however the situation has now changed. Not only are there new proposed regulations that foreign companies must submit their own sustainability reports within China, but various sectors within the Chinese economy have embraced both domestic and international standards to help propel Chinese businesses to greater heights around the world. ttp://www. chinacsr. com/en/2009/02/23/4572-how-far-can-chinese-companies-take-corporate-social-responsibility/. Russia is faced with incurring concerns with ethical issues that is attributed to their uncertain weak and corrupt government and the emergence of widespread market activity in Russia. Bribery has become a way of business in Russia. According to several recent surveys and interviews with dozens of ordinary Russians, it has surged in scale and scope in recent years under the presidency of Vladimir Putin. The prevalence of corruption and crime in business affairs has been generally recognized as a major cause of concern. Speculation about whether the movement toward a legitimate market economy can be sustained without a foundation of supportive institutions has been justifiably raised. The development of a system of ethical business practices in Russia process is needed to create a civil society along with becoming a global world leader. India is well aware of their involvement in corporate social responsibility to gain a position as one of the world’s strongest leaders. In terms of government rules and regulations, Jagdish Sheth, executive director of the India, China and America Institute and a professor of marketing at Emory University said that in India, â€Å"the government acts as a gatekeeper rather than an enabler, with slow approval, a complex bureaucracy and corruption. Enforcement is also lax† (Sheth, 2007). India has enacted several laws pertaining to child labor laws, environmental, and right to information and corruption laws however there are low levels of government capacity for law enforcement and implementation in India, causing relatively high levels of corruption, but other laws were enacted to give the general public right to government information which was meant to promote transparency and responsibility in the work of all governmental institutions. There is a strong belief in corporate social responsibility in India,† Sheth said. He also noted how Indian management style differs from that in the West: Decisions are made by the person at the top, not in a participatory way. And there is what he called a caste system by education. http://www. scu. edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/business/conference/2007/presentations/sheth. html How to cite Bric, Papers

Heroism in Shooter and Water Margin Essay Example For Students

Heroism in Shooter and Water Margin Essay In the essay, A Comparative Study on Heroism in Shooter and Water Margin, by Xiahong Wei and Jian Xu, published by Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Wei and Xu compare how cultural background can affect the two types of heroism shown in the films Shooter and Water Margin. Wei introduces the paper by explaining how movies are so strongly rooted to each respectful culture and that they are more of a representation of a culture instead of a mode of entertainment. Wei and Xu address viewing films that reflect one’s country can help people comprehend contrasting cultures and advance intercultural communication. Wei compares the two cultures by first describing the American film Shooter. It is about a man that is an expert sniper and protects the president of the United States but is hunted down after being framed of killing the Ethiopian archbishop. Bob Lee then then is hunted down by the FBI and tries to find the truth of what really happened. Wei and Xu addresses that Shooter is a typical American hero movie because it contains a soldier who is strong and does not associate himself with any groups; which is common in individual heroism. Wei indicates that individual heroism shown in American films is not only there for entertainment but also a representation of American culture. Heroes such as in Shooter are strong, brave, courageous, and wise. Through these characteristics is Bob successful in achieving the impossible. Wei analyzes the individual heroism by explaining that it has a big effect on how Americans dress, educate, and behave on an everyday basis. He indicates that American people believe to be a special group of people blessed by God and that they have the right to do anything they want to do because human rights and freedom are crucial. The people of America are all based on a individualistic mindset and even in their jobs they try to increase their network for selfish individual purposes. They display a life of independence in daily life that they don’t think about other (Wei and Xu 2). In the Chinese film, Water Margin, Wei explains that the famous film contained one hundred and eight people all with distinct cultures and classes. Though the people living along the water margin had different personalities, they were all living as one society under a cruel leadership. Even though they were all from different level of social class, they came together as one and rebelled against the cruel authority. Wei asserts that this movement by the people in the water margin is collective heroism. Unlike American heroes who have supernatural powers and fight the bad by themselves, Chinese heroes are ordinary people and come together as a group to fight the unjust. Wei describes that the definition of a true hero used to be a man who sacrifices himself for the people, but after the film Water Margin, heroes can be a collective group of people that don’t fight alone. Wei points out that collective heroism is present in Chinese culture and the society is ruled by it. The loyalty shown in Water Margin is also ever present in the Chinese society (Wei and Xu 5) Wei and Xu conclude by mentioning that in America, the movies such as shooter provides encouragement for personal improvement and individualism. While in China, collectivism still thrives in society. These kinds of movies allow people from different culture to portray an image of themselves and it allows countries to share their culture thus improving international communication.

An Overview of Operation Allied Force in Kosovo

An Overview of Operation Allied Force in Kosovo In 1998, the long-simmering conflict between the Slobodan MiloÃ… ¡evics Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Liberation Army erupted into full-scale fighting. Battling to end Serbian oppression, the KLA also sought independence for Kosovo. On January 15, 1999, Yugoslav forces massacred 45 Kosovar Albanians in the village of Racak. News of the incident sparked global outrage and led NATO to issue an ultimatum to MiloÃ… ¡evics government calling for an end to the fighting and Yugoslavian compliance with the demands of the international community. Operation Allied Force To settle the issue, a peace conference opened at Rambouillet, France with NATO Secretary General Javier Solana serving as a mediator. After weeks of talks, the Rambouillet Accords were signed by the Albanians, United States, and Great Britain. These called for NATO administration of Kosovo as an autonomous province, a force of 30,000 peacekeepers, and free right of passage through Yugoslav territory. These terms were refused by MiloÃ… ¡evic, and the talks quickly broke down. With the failure at Rambouillet, NATO prepared to launch air strikes to force the Yugoslavian government back to the table. Dubbed Operation Allied Force, NATO stated that their military operations were undertaken to achieve: A stop to all military action and repression in KosovoThe withdrawal of all Serbian forces from KosovoAgreement to the presence of an international peacekeeping force in KosovoThe unconditional and safe return of all refugees and unhindered access to them by humanitarian organizationsA credible assurance from MiloÃ… ¡evics government that it was willing to work on the basis of the Rambouillet Accords in creating an acceptable political framework for the future of Kosovo Once it was demonstrated that Yugoslavia was adhering to these terms, NATO stated that their air strikes would cease. Flying from bases in Italy and carriers in the Adriatic Sea, NATO aircraft and cruise missiles began attacking targets on the evening on March 24, 1999. The first strikes were conducted against targets in Belgrade and were flown by aircraft from the Spanish Air Force. Oversight for the operation was delegated to the Commander-in-Chief, Allied Forces Southern Europe, Admiral James O. Ellis, USN. Over the next ten weeks, NATO aircraft flew over 38,000 sorties against Yugoslav forces. While Allied Force began with surgical attacks against high-level and strategic military targets, it was soon expanded to include Yugoslavian forces on the ground in Kosovo. As air strikes continued into April, it became clear that both sides had misjudged their oppositions will to resist. With MiloÃ… ¡evic refusing to comply with NATO demands, planning began for a ground campaign to expel Yugoslav forces from Kosovo. Targeting was also expanded to include dual-use facilities such as bridges, power plants, and telecommunications infrastructure. Early May saw several errors by NATO aircraft including the accidental bombing of a Kosovar Albanian refugee convoy and a strike again the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade. Sources have subsequently indicated that the latter may have been intentional with the goal of eliminating radio equipment being used by the Yugoslav army. As NATO aircraft continued their attacks, MiloÃ… ¡evics forces worsened the refugee crisis in the region by forcing Kosovar Albanians from the province. Ultimately, over 1 million people were displaced from their homes, increasing NATOs resolve and support for its involvement. As the bombs fell, Finnish and Russian negotiators continuously worked to end the conflict. In early June, with NATO preparing for a ground campaign, they were able to convince MiloÃ… ¡evic to give in to the alliances demands. On June 10, 1999, he agreed to NATOs terms, including the presence of a United Nations peacekeeping force in Kosovo. Two days later, Kosovo Force (KFOR), led by Lieutenant General Mike Jackson (British Army), which had been staging for an invasion, crossed the border to return to peace and stability to Kosovo. Aftermath Operation Allied Force cost NATO two soldiers killed (outside of combat) and two aircraft. Yugoslavian forces lost between 130-170 killed in Kosovo, as well as five aircraft and 52 tanks/artillery/vehicles. Following the conflict, NATO agreed to allow the United Nations to supervise the administration of Kosovo and that no independence referendum would be permitted for three years. As a result of his actions during the conflict, Slobodan MiloÃ… ¡evic was indicted for war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. He was overthrown the following year. On February 17, 2008, after several years of negotiations at the UN, Kosovo controversially declared independence. Operation Allied Force is also notable as the first conflict in which the German Luftwaffe took part since World War II. Selected Sources NATO: Operation Allied ForceGlobal Security: Operation Allied Force

The Jungle1 essays

The Jungle1 essays I feel extremely fortunate that as a whole, working today families do not experience as many tragedies as the characters in Upton Sinclairs The Jungle experienced during the beginning of the 20th century. While reading The Jungle I learned that the rights and welfare of the average American working man and woman have dramatically increased over the past hundred years. Although some of the same social, economic, and political problems still occur in our society, the problems are far less prevalent than they were during the time Sinclair The novel follows the lives a large Lithuanian family during the early 1900s that immigrates to the United States in the pursuit of freedom and happiness. The family of eleven took what little money they had with them to the United States with the hope of escaping poverty and providing a better life for their children. After a long, arduous journey across the Atlantic Ocean, the family arrived in New York and was swindled out most of their savings by police who were supposed to protect them. The family continued to travel to Chicago (Packingtown), where they finally settled down. Upon arrival in Packingtown, the family found that the cost of living in the United States was far more expensive than in Lithuania. To further add to the familys dismay, they learned that the only employment available to non-English speaking, uneducated, and hardworking immigrants like themselves in Packingtown was scarce, unstable, arduous, and dangerous. Packingtown was designed to make families dependent on working in factories. When an employee in a factory hurt themselves or was fell ill, they would quickly be tossed aside and filled with a fresh worker. Employers in Packingtown demanded 16 hour workdays from their employees and rewarded them with ...

James Moor - Computer Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

James Moor - Computer Ethics - Essay Example 269). Thus, individuals are empowered to perform a large number of operations previously unavailable to them. An example might be the ability to make microloans to individuals in developing countries: an ability that most people in developed countries did not have 20 to 30 years ago. As ethical philosophers have pointed out for centuries, even though one can perform a certain action that does not necessarily mean one ought to perform that action. Given this basis for Moor’s discussion of computer ethics, it seems that Moor successfully argues for special consideration of computer ethics as a specialized area in moral philosophy. Early in his essay, Moor introduces the concept of a â€Å"policy vacuum†, which limits the public’s ability to utilize the potential of computer technology. A policy vacuum is an absence of officially recognized public standards for how to utilize a resource. One often finds a policy vacuum where there is cutting-edge technology that the public does not seem to have a use for. A current example of a policy vacuum might be related to green technology, which is subject to endless political debates. Even though the technology exists, it is unclear how the public will deploy those resources and gain benefits from it. Another example of a policy vacuum may exist in developing nations where modern technology is new and not well-understood. In such a case, the country may not see the need for the new resource and thus not capitalize on its potential. Moor also introduces the notion of a â€Å"conceptual vacuum† early in his paper. Although a conceptual vacuum occurs in concert with a policy vacuum, the conceptual vacuum invariably occurs before and causes the policy vacuum. That is, without a â€Å"coherent conceptual framework within which to formulate a policy for action†, there can be no policy for action, which produces the inevitable result of a policy vacuum. A coherent conceptual framework is necessar y because one cannot, for instance, explain the benefits of high-speed broadband to the leader of a developing country who has never used, let alone heard of, the internet. Another example of a conceptual vacuum might be, with respect to the United States, is the debate over the use of renewable energy and â€Å"green† technology. The consequences of a change to alternative sources of energy might not be conceptually compatible with a view of the world that does not admit of the consequences of global climate change. Thus, a policy vacuum results when those who are in charge of making decisions cannot comprehend the conceptual basis of their decisions. Further into his essay, Moor begins to establish a basis for comparing the â€Å"Computer Revolution† with the â€Å"Industrial Revolution†. The reason for this comparison probably lies in the ethical dilemmas evoked by the Industrial Revolution, which Moor is trying to draw parallels with in our modern age. In on e respect, the Computer Revolution is complete: the sense in which our lives have become thoroughly interconnected with computer technology (by means of laptop computers and mobile phones). Nevertheless, in a second sense, the Computer Revolution is not over: the sense in which computer technology has yet to fully develop and fully integrate with every

Human Relationships in Todays Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Human Relationships in Todays Culture - Essay Example The first part of the article from a man’s perspective for a male audience starts off with the claim that a man’s ego stands in the way of successful resolution to many conflicts, including conflicts that arise from poor communication (Mitchell). Typical â€Å"male† forces force men to pursue an often-destructive path toward â€Å"being right†, which creates problems in relationships. For that reason, the author claims that men are worse at relationship-based communication, but not much worse than women. As a result, the author recommends first to make time for each other. That includes taking the time to sit together, cook together, travel together, and to eat together and being open and honest about the things that trouble the relationship while reassuring that the overall relationship is strong. Another piece of advice is to be an active listener, which includes having patience, concentration, and modesty. It is easy to get distracted while other people (not just women or a relationship partner) are talking. Modesty is also important because it allows others to take the floor in a discussion, which gets back to the author’s original assertion that a man’s ego often gets in the way of productive communication between relationship partners. Men are also advised to focus on nonverbal forms of communication, including body language indicative of negative emotions. Men, on the advice of the columnist, must overcome their natural insensitivity to serve as a true emotional partner.

Coca Cola: PEST Analysis and Strategy Plans

Coca Cola: PEST Analysis and Strategy Plans Introduction The battle of the chief soft drink manufacturer has been intense and the coca cola company with its headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia has had the largest market share globally. The company has withstood the test of domination globally from its greatest competitor Pepsi Company. Coca Cola has had a large share of the market capitalization but at times the rival company has emerged strong beating it in market share in other financial periods. Its brands have however remained renowned throughout the world and for them to continue dominating they must focus on the customer needs and preference that is the reason they are in business (Milliken, 2007). The company boasts of key success factors in its operations which include; capacity to introduce competitive prices, global extensive distribution, effective customer awareness, a wide range of product choices for customers, effective and timely distribution channels and bottlers, and a global system of operation. The Coca Cola Company has been forced to operate under tight competition in the US domestic markets from Pepsi, Cadbury Schweppes, Cott, and AmBev, but in other markets especially in the developing countries it has established zones of duopoly where it remains the dominant company. Its efforts to penetrate the Middle East and China have been risky since the Pepsi Company continues to dominate the markets there (Milliken, 2007). PEST Analysis of Coca Cola Politics and legal environment In many developing countries there has been ease of entry but the countries face a lot of political unrests e.g. coups and violence which may affect the penetration of market or losses for the already established companies. Other companies have legal barriers that must be addressed before the company establishes itself. The legal showdown of Pepsi and coca cola in India gives a clear view of this fact and especially in the Middle East and Asian markets where Coca Cola seeks new markets. Economic The Company sells consumer products which are sensitive to buyer disposable revenue. The consumers have viewed the drinks as inexpensive and hence its unlikely to forego. Also the disposable income continues to raise hence more purchase to such things as soft drinks. The world currently is going through many financial crises such as the global financial crunch and increasing inflation and companies especially Coca Cola has continued to put in measures such as price adjustments to be able to impact the markets. The strategy of adjusting prices helps Coca Cola to counter the effects of raising costs and hence thus generate enough cash flow that ensures the company productive capability is maintained (Fredrix Skidmore, 2009). Social/demographic Soft drink consumption is inversely related to the age of the consumer i.e. most people take more drinks when they are young as opposed to when they mature. In the current generation average age increases and most of the population is made up of the young this gives an advantage of the increase in the market base of the company. This means that the company has a more potential market to sell the products to and thus a strategic plan should be worked to own the markets. Technological The world is turning to a global village and the age of effective communication gives the perfect atmosphere for business. The world today is easy and convenient to travel, secure and different tastes and preference have emerged (Hannagan, 2002). The powerful brand name of the company becomes a selling point in the franchise of other companies that need to be affiliated to the prestigious brand. Effective communication has also ensured that advertisements and promotions by the company are known world over hence better growth. Rivalry The major rival domestically is Pepsi in the United States. The soft drinks industry has continued to be very competitive and major competitors turn to rivals. The promotion of the brands such as Sprite, Coke, and Fanta in many countries has grown at the expense of the many beverages in the markets (Mark, 2000). The company must implement an effective strategy that ensures advertising, sales, innovations, increased efficiency, brands development, promotional program trade mark development are done efficiently to outsmart the rivals. Suppliers The Company will always need supplies of raw materials such as fructose corn syrup, and sucrose. The availability of this major raw material at numerous sources has made the company dominate the suppliers, however aspartame has not been available in numerous sites and this can lead to problems if production ceases (May, 1998). Buyers The main buyers are individuals who consume the product. The company however deals with local franchised bottlers who deal with the local markets. After effective bottling of the products the consumer/buyer must get the products through chain supermarkets, vending, and fountain sales. The buyers must have the knowledge of the product and be enticed to consume so that he/she can make the purchase (Mark, 2000). Threats of substitutes Many products have emerge to substitute soft drinks e.g. fruit juices and beverages. The company must have attractive offers to ensure that the substitutes introduced in the market dont interfere with the market share of the company. Threats of entrants New companies keep on coming up to compete for a share of the market. The soft drink markets have been mainly dominated by Coca Cola and Pepsi and new entrants find it very hard to penetrate the markets. Internal Environment Operations Coca cola has continued to globally dominate the market and the regional operational strategy that is centralized production system ensure reduced costs. Sales and marketing The area of supermarkets and brand loyalty has played an essential part in the growth of Coca Cola this has ensured profitability and large market share. Distribution The efficient distribution channels i.e. bottling companies has ensured that customers get the product at the right time and conveniently. Automated channel of distribution like the Coca Cola Enterprise that has sales agents and merchandisers in major outlets complement other distribution strategies. Procurement For efficient operations the company has a strategy to own the bottlers operations so that they do it more efficiently to be able to distribute the product properly. The procurement of acquiring a franchise chain is done procedurally to ensure qualified people own the process. Human resources Many people have been employed by the company and they have remained loyal. The company has given attractive remunerations and compensations in order to make them perform effectively and efficiently. Core Resources and competence The factors that favor the companys growth and development plans include; markets, costs, governments, and competition. In the markets they are characterized by homogenous customer needs, global channels and global customer needs, transferable and easy to manipulate market approaches. Cost are favored by learning and experience, large scale and scope economies, high resource and development costs, conducive logistics, and efficiencies in sourcing (Mark, 2000). On the side of the government they are responsible for putting in place inductive trade policies, technology standards that are common and manufacture and marketing regulations that are common and do not favor any party but put a level competing ground for all players. In terms of competition globalization has been favored through presence of interdependent countries that allow competition, and the liberalization of trade in many countries. With the markets giving many incentives to the company to grow then good management policies is all needed to grow and became successful and coca cola has done just that (Kottler, Amstrong, 2006). It has endeavored in its mission to refresh a thirsty world and creating value to shareholders. The company brands have continued to be advertised and image enhanced, where the company has also acquired more franchise networks globally. The systems of the company that are based on organizational structure and timely decisions have continued to make the company succeed. The objectives of the company include; customer satisfaction and creation of a loyal system of customers, community development, effective partnership, and valuable shareholding in the company. The long term goals include increasing cash flow through increased sales, optimizing of profit margins, and global investments expansion in hot spots (Kottler, Amstrong, 2006). The guiding principle is to have an established production, distribution, and marketing system that can support long term growth of cash flow and shareowner value of Coca Cola. The Strategic Choices Available for Coca Cola Product Filling Strategy Ohmae (1990) states that the product line of a firm is lengthened by the addition of more products within the current range; The implications behind this line filling includes; the reach for profit incremental, satisfying the complaining dealers on sales due to the absence of some items in the line, utilizing the capacity that is excess, to try to be the full time company that is leading the market and lastly, to try to plug the holes hence keeping out the competitors. Kogut (1985) starts by explaining that, Coca Cola uses this form of strategy of filling the line of production from time to time; during different seasons as it launches its new products. For example to Zerocoke was launched by Coca Cola at the time James Bond released the movie Quantum of Solace forms part of product filling marketing. The product is presented as if it new. Distribution strategy Coca Cola is globally famous for its distribution channels. In India the Coca Cola distribution channel is a bout 6.5lakh outlets by the year 2000 as compared to its competitor Peps Cos which was 6lakh. The firm has a development of different strategies of distribution strategies for the rural and the urban sectors. The channel of distribution in the Urban adopts the model similar to the direct store distribution, warehouse distribution brokers and vending food services programs according to Ohmae (1990). This methods ensures savings of margins and encourages quick availability of the item to the retailer While in the rural, the Hub and Spoke model distribution channel is applied. Where there is a division of different distributors categories depending on the area they are covering. This model is utilized by to reach the rural market as the program allows the bigger loads to travel long distances while the smaller ones shorter distances as a result the costs are cut down, as stated by Bate and Johnston (2003). Khan (2005) explain the point that through there use of modern technology in the present times Coca Cola is able to improve its distribution and management operations logistics reasonably. There are the options of Chilled DSD System that deals relatively with the methods of distributions that are small. Particularly, it deals with juicy fruits products that can easily go bad. The second option is the Hybrid System, where there is collaboration between the firm and the firm of complimentary good so that its channels of distribution can be used for the selling of the product. In this, the example is collaboration Coca Cola and McDonald. This system is actually benefited by the creation of the synergy by the two collaborating firms. The Social corporate strategy This is where the firm provides the volunteer services in the community. This strategy with the social work assists in position the firms brand name in the minds of the users for the longer time as the brand that is both ethical and social, hence providing the opportunity for the period of growth that is long term. The recent example is the case of Coca Cola social work in India where it has been awarded a golden peacock a ward. Coca Cola has concentrated on water conservation, clean drinking water access and water conservation awareness and other related issues as the firms strategy on the stewardship of water. The Coca Cola Corporate strategy The achievements made by Coca Cola in China are a very strong indicator that patience pays. The firms strategy and management planned vigorously for the success. The market leadership that it enjoys is rooted on strong capability of reacting in time and accurately to the changing market dynamics. Heller Bono, (2006) argued that the firm dominates the market not because it came early in the market but because of brilliant short time moves like the concentration on fanta and sprite. Also success comes because of joint ventures. Early on when the investment in beverage industry was restricted it formed partnership with government bodies but no equal share. Latter, it joined with other ventures with equal control hence gained majority equity. The strategic partnership that the Coca Cola firm was being involved was the strategy of positioning itself for the future. The Coca Cola partner serves the number of firm critical goal. They do share the investment risks in the plant of bottling and it can leverage the political effects its partners to acquire government approvals for the new plants of bottling. The most significant of these new partners allows the Coca Cola management control via the major equal ownership of joint ventures. Pricing Strategy This drastically affects sales in a number of ways. The case from Kogut (1985) of Pepsi provides an example of how pricing strategy can affect the market and sales. The firm gained popularity in 1936 by introducing 12-ounce bottle. The earlier price of 10 cents resulted to slow sales. After slashing the price to 5 cents there was a substantial increase in sales. This was due to the Pepsi ability to encourage the price-watching users to switch the Coca Cola 6-ounces standard bottle for the price of 5cents instead of 12-ounces. Pepsi sold at a similar price. The sales in 1939 a lone was 5 million bottles as the profit doubled as the consumption went higher. The Communication Strategy Dana and Oldfield (1999) say that after looking at the environment that is changing, Coca Cola calibrated its communication strategy in a way that is very innovative. The works of imagery for the carbonated soft drinks, while the work of functionality for the rest of the categories. The example that entrenches imagery is the brand for refreshing; the firm introduces the issue of comfort ability. Brand Development Strategy The strategy that I believe Coca Cola Company should peruse is the brand development strategy. According to Dana and Oldfield (1999) this strategy has far reached and managed to remain in the limelight ever since it started to be good with these that do not take alcohol. The loyalty of the brand is a significant factor to maintain the number one position. Collins (1991) states that Coca Cola Company enjoys the status of being of the biggest non alcoholic beverage firm worldwide its distribution system is unique from other non alcoholic companies. Over years the company has passed many brand enhancement tests and a point is made for the products under the banner of Coca Cola as it invades the minds of the users continually. Hamel and Prhalad (1985)explains that the brand development strategy of Coca Cola should involve the redesigning of its brand development policies and the techniques of keeping up with the set minds of its users that is ever changing. In the beginning this brand believed in affordability, being available and being acceptable. However this Coca Colas brand development should be changed to include the value of price, preference and pervasive penetration. Boutzikas (2000) explains that the issue of building brand of the firm is based on the fact that it wants its users accessibility, which is to be within the reach of desire of the arm. In the efforts of building the brand identity of the firm, many brand attributes for example 20 are to be tested in every month which may involve as much as 4000 users. The strategy of brand development of Coca Cola is very effective as it has been having the capability of constructing, managing as well as maintaining its brand image since many years ago. Another reason as to why this strategy should be used is that the brand has unanimously gained the acceptance all round the world because of the fact that it has shown the capability of relating very well with its users. This signifies the brand loyalty. The loyalty of the brand has been very vital in maintaining the brand picture of Coca Cola. It has believed in shelling out the best as a result the users by default are retained as explained by Boutzikas (2000). The enhancement of the frequency of purchase is one of the techniques of building brand. The firm has also made investments in many campaigns of advertisements always involving the services of theses who are the celebrities around the world. On top of the users, there is another category of users, who usually increases the user foundation and they comprises of the brand collectors. They most of the time indulges in the collection of the old and the logos that are upcoming of the Coca Cola bottles and they literary matter. Collins (1991) says regarding to the development of the brand of Coca Cola zero the firm came out with an advertisement that was some what different from the most common ones. In the concern of this the no calorie beverage, it has given raise to three forms of products that include; the Coca Cola Classic, the Diet Coke, and the Coca Cola Zero. Boutzikas (2000) continues that there are a number of experts who have a believe that these times when Coca Cola the tag of line that states, the real thing, it was really meaning that, however, with the invention of different kinds of categories of coke, the statement the real thing got changed to the statement that reads many things, and the flavor that was there originally is at most times lost. As the result, the building of the brand strategy has to be in such a manner that it will not lead to the peoples confusion and have the capability of retaining users despite the fact that many new manufactures of non alcoholic beverage being on the anvil. Theories And Practice Of Leadership: Nissan Theories And Practice Of Leadership: Nissan When making major changes in a business, efficiency, adaption and human relations need to be considered and the trade-offs between these that might be affected. Efficiency was improved by closing 5 of the factories in Japan and eliminating 21,000 jobs to maximize production and reduce wastage. To simplify the production process Ghosn reduced the number of car platforms by 50% and the number of power trains by 33%. Human relations is always a trade-off when job cuts are made, this was counter acted by Ghosn. He used natural attrition whilst selling subsidiaries or offering early retirement or part-time work at other company facilities all of which would help the morale of the employees that left and the ones that remained so they did not feel so guilty and suffer from survivor syndrome (Daniels, 2006). Reducing purchasing costs by 20% was another way that Nissan improved efficiency; this was achieved by reducing the number of suppliers and making bigger orders. A negative trade off from this was the reduced relationship status with suppliers which is a highly regarded aspect of business in Japan. Engineers were also to blame for making overly specific orders which increased costs unnecessarily as they produced cars to solely improve performance, the trade off was that cars began to be made with customer needs in mind, not performance improvement. Weak distribution was also to blame for the downfall of Nissan; Ghosn reduced dealerships by 10%. Brand loyalty is high in Japan and determined by good customer relations which was a trade off for the reduction in dealerships; this was handled by improving the management in the remaining dealerships so that they become more entrepreneurial than social roles in the business. Design was instigated by engineers and not by the designers; this is why only 4 of the 43 cars in production were profitable. Twelve new cars were to be produced by the designers, to meet customer needs. A trade off of this was poor self-esteem for the engineers but equally designers were given freedom to be innovative and feel more valued by the company. Adaption was improved by correctly identifying the major changes, whilst not dictating them to employees. These plans were all released at once with the explanations behind their needs as to stave of criticism and prejudgments. The trade off for this was in the use of cross functional teams to improve human relations via interaction across departments for them to identify the major changes themselves, therefore then not feeling like they are being dictated to by senior executives. Human relations were improved (for the company, not the employee) by not giving lifetime job guarantees and not adhering to the seniority system that was in place for pay and promotions which lead to the replacing of weak middle management with competent replacements. The trade offs for implementing this was for poor employee relations to occur but this was managed by a merit pay plan, for performance related pay increases and promotions, with employees capable of earning up to an additional 33% of their wage based on performance and gaining stock options. To conclude Ghosn tried to weigh up and counter act the trade offs between efficiency, adaption and human relations well with the use of merit plans, extra innovation and better management. However there was not any strong counter action in relation to reducing purchasing costs, this was evident for the engineers in particular, where as it was obvious how the designers benefited from the changes made. Effective change is essential to the success and survival of a business as 62% of new businesses fail within 5 years and only 2% survive over 50 years (Nystrom Starbuck, 1984). With this in mind effective change management is critical to Nissan and Ghosns success. Ghosn used planned change which has both driving forces and restraining forces that affect the organisations state of equilibrium during implementation (Thomas, 2010). Features of planned change include; Assumption of a stable/predictable environment which Nissan do have. Required change must be identifiable, Ghosn meet this by introducing cross functional teams to identify the problems and changes needed. To move from one fixed change to another, this was done with the permanent closing of 5 factories and the loss of 21,000 jobs. Organisational members must be willing to change; Ghosn increased the willingness to change by creating a vision for the company, empowering employees such as the designers and cross functional team to identify the changes needed which meant they would then be more willing to follow the changes through than have them dictated to them. To have the appropriate tools and techniques available, Ghosn had all the tools available, in most instances it was a case o f reducing them in terms of factories, workers and suppliers. Where he did not have the correct tools he brought them in such as designer Shiro Nakamura. Restraining forces of planned change include (Katz Kahn, 1978) structural inertia, work group inertia, politics and previously unsuccessful efforts. Ghosn changed structural inertia by implementing the cross functional teams to identify and suggest changes for the problems and allowing them to be more adaptive and innovative than ever before. Work group inertia was changed from the design being engineer led to being designer led and customer focused and not performance focused. Politics was addressed by giving more power to the employees via cross functional teams and via the merit pay system were people earned their promotions and pay rises/bonuses. Ghosn managed to implement these changes using Lewins (Lewin, 1947) three step model of change (see appendix 1). In the unfreezing stage of the model, Ghosn had to make sure that employees were ready for change and understood the need for it. This was achieved by using cross functional teams, as the employees would identify the issues and solutions of the company which would lead to higher acceptance for change as the changes were realized and not dictated. Ghosn also offered to step down from his post if the targets were not meet which installs confidence, commitment and belief in the employees that the changes are necessary, realistic and achievable. The change stage of the cycle was used to implement the required changes that Ghosn and the cross functional teams had identified such as the reduction in suppliers, better distribution channels and management, customer focused designs and reduction in production costs. The refreezing stage of the cycle is Ghosns weakest part in terms of delivery. Nothing had been outlined specifically to make sure those attitudes, processes and cultures do not return to how they were before or that similar patterns do not appear again. The incorporation of a vision and plan for the firm can be seen as a retention strategy for changes made, however this area is significantly weaker than previous two stages. In my opinion Ghosn was right not refreeze the changes, the opening statement points to the need for constant change and transformation for a company to keep up with the changing environments that they work within. This therefore would count as criticism of the theory; as Lewin talks about the tactics for change but does not recognize that change should be constant and never ending, which is not the impression you get in his theory with the refreezing of culture which would represent an end to the change. Ghosn was very focused on the planned changes that he had in mind for Nissan, which could be seen as reasonable due to the short term nature of the plan. However with every planned change, the external environment can not be predicted with complete assurances. All companies have to deal with strategic drift (Johnson G, Scholes K Whittington R, 2005) which is when strategies fail to address the strategic position of the organisation, relative to the changing environment. Ghosn had not considered this at all in his plans and therefore had failed to acknowledge the potential importance of emergent change. This could have been critical had there been severe and critical changes to the external environment. For example if the banking crisis that has hit us now had happened ten years ago during implementation, did Ghosn have an alternative plan. Ghosn managed to implement effective change management techniques through the use of planned change and used Lewins three step model of change to rectify problems encountered by the restraining forces. Ghosn managed to minimize the resistance to change through the use of cross functional teams, the merit pay system, empowering employees, offering alternatives types of work for some of the people unfortunate enough to lose their jobs and showing his commitment to the challenge by stating he would resign if the goals were not achieved on time. A trait refers (Yukl, 2002) to a variety of individual attributes, including personality, temperament, needs, motives and values. Skills refer to (Yukl, 2002) the ability to do things in an effective manner and are determined by learning and heredity. The use of good traits and skills will have been used by Ghosn to successfully lead Nissan out of its crisis to meet the goals that he set for the company. Strategic leadership requires a managerial ability to (Thomas, 2010), anticipate and envision change whilst maintaining flexibility and empowering others to manage strategic change if necessary. Effective strategic leaders (Thomas, 2010) tend to be able to manage operations effectively, sustain a high performance, make better decisions than their competitors, and make courageous and pragmatic decisions. They must also understand how their decisions affect the internal systems and respect the feedback from peers and employees about their decisions and visions. The three factor taxonomy of skills shows (Yukl, 1994) that it can be broken down into these sections: Technical Skills, Interpersonal Skills and Conceptual skills. Ghosn shows his technical skills in reducing the amount of power train combinations and car platforms due to his knowledge of the processes required. This shows his strategic leadership in managing operations effectively and sustaining higher performance Interpersonal skills were shown when dedicating cross functional teams to identifying and eradicating the problems in the business. Changing to the merit pay system from the seniority system also showed his good interpersonal skills as by taking one away but replacing the lose with something better and more productive. This was a courageous decision as these strategies have never been contemplated before in Japanese businesses prior to Ghosns arrival. His conceptual skills were proved in his ability to reduce the production costs by as much as 20%, by cutting down on factories, employees, suppliers and dealers and managing to keep a positive spin on these cost cutting initiatives. This showed his ability to make better decisions than his Japanese competitors and therefore be a successful strategic leader. Ghosns personality proved to be charismatic as he holds traits of charisma (Conger Kanungo, 1988) such as being self confident and enthusiastic and willing to take personal risks, such as putting his job and reputation on the line. He challenged the status quo with things such as reducing dealerships and suppliers and introducing cross-functional teams. Ghosn was also innovative and unconventional in relation to how the Japanese operate normally, by instructing designers to produce 12 new cars for construction and changing the whole pay and promotion system in the company. Ghosn has shown a range of skills and traits that are needed to be a successful strategic leader, such as the interpersonal skills to convince people of a new vision and get them committed to the goals through his own strong beliefs and dedication to them. Empowering people was used to enable them to become more innovative and creative and to be able to identify and solve problems themselves. Ghosn managed to improve production efficiency with his conceptualization skills whilst showing the charisma to be able to challenge the status quos in a culture that has a naturally high level of uncertainty avoidance. A transformational leader is (Bass, 1985) someone who identifies the needed change, creates a vision to guide the change through inspiration, and executes the change with the commitment of the followers. An empowering leader is (McLagan, Patricia Nel, Christo, 1995) someone who gives a clear vision, strategy and enabling tool kit. A change-orientated leader is (Tichy Devanna, 1990) someone who recognizes the need for change, creates a new vision and then institutionalizes the change. Ghosn was a transformational leader as he incorporated all of the 4 Is (see appendix 2) into his leadership style (Northouse, 2001). Ghosn managed to gain idealized influence through making a huge commitment to the goals that he set by putting his job on the line. This is a charismatic and confident thing to do that would have firmly set the belief that he was superiorly knowledgeable and capable. Inspirational motivation was clearly set out by Ghosn as he made his targets clear and bold as he released them all at once, whilst managing to avoid leakage to minimize criticism without understanding. The merit pay scheme would have also been motivational to employees as they would now know they could get recognition and promotion for other reasons than besides seniority. Ghosn managed to install intellectual stimulation to his employees through the use of cross functional teams that allowed them to be creative and innovative in their approach compared to their previous roles. He equally gave designers the same freedom to become innovative. Ghosn did also challenge organisation processes with the reduction in suppliers, distributors and the use of power trains and car platforms. Individualized consideration was also covered by the use of the merit pay system and each employee now has the potential to earn an additional 33% of their salary through bonuses. They can also now gain promotion when it was maybe not possible before under the old system. However he could have done more for the engineers as they gained criticism for overly detailed specifications on orders and having too much influence on designers, nothing was outlined on how they would be picked up after these knockdowns. A mentoring or coaching scheme could have been incorporated to help employees reach their personal goals more effectively to improve on this point this further. Ghosn was also a change-orientated leader as he did identify and implement changes but it was already obvious that change was needed, which is why Ghosn was brought to Nissan in the first place. Ghosn was equally an empowering leader as he gave his employees responsibility and roles they had not experienced before but he done so much more for Nissan than just empower employees as he made radical changes himself. These two leadership styles in my opinion are present for Ghosn but are only small parts of his repertoire and the overall picture, which is that they are aspects which feed into being a good transformational leader. Ghosn incorporates all three of the leadership styles but uses change and empowering leadership as tools to direct his transformational leadership style more effectively and to help achieve intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. With Ghosn making so many changes to Nissan, it was inevitable that some of these changes would affect the culture of the company and the issues that are aligned with them. One of the big cross cultural issues that had to be addressed by Nissan first was the action of reducing the number of suppliers to the company, which was seen as unprecedented in the past. This was because supplier relationships were deemed sacrosanct. Part of the problem was that Nissan was at the time part of the Keiretsu culture in Japan, this is where a large group of companies work with each other to the perceived benefit of one enough. It was seen as a safety net upon which they all owned shares in each other and kept each other safe. If Nissan were to get out of their current crisis bold moves had to be made in comparison to competitors, so moving away from this culture was essential. An equally important cross cultural issue that was changed at Nissan was the belief of having a job for life and promotion and pay based on seniority. When the merit pay system was brought in, this was to motivate employees to push for their promotions instead of simply waiting for them to happen. With the new procedures of accountability measured against the goals of the company introduced this showed the weak middle/upper management that needed replacing. This would have been a shock to the Japanese as their culture has always been to respect your elders; this was no longer the case with the new system in place. In Japanese culture there is a high level of uncertainty avoidance, this is when (Yukl, 2002) people fear ambiguous situations and seek security and stability. Ghosn challenged this culture by immediately putting people into cross functional teams to identify the problems with Nissan. Employees will have felt uncomfortable with this new style that had not been experienced before but will have quickly learned the benefits of working with other department managers and understanding the problems they face on a daily basis. This can be a attributed reason as to why the engineers were aloud to dominate the decision making on supply specifications and design for so long, as confrontation was not part of their culture and therefore no would have questioned their workings. Another cross cultural issue faced is the performance orientation (Yukl, 2002). Prior to Ghosn and his introduction of performance that could be measured against specific goals, the Japanese were very focused on maintaining relationships as they believed it was brand loyalty that would ensure repeat purchase. This can be linked to the sacrosanct relationships which they had with suppliers and distributors as well as their involvement in the Keiretsu culture that created this behaviour. Ghosn changed this philosophy of relying on brand loyalty and brought in the need to meet customer requirements which has made them incredibly more goal focused. The important cultural issues that needed to be changed at Nissan, was the movement away from the reliance of other companies and the relationships built with them to ensure the maximum working efficiency and productivity for themselves. It was equally as vital that employees realized they would not have an easy ride with a guaranteed job and promotion but that they had to work for these things and prove themselves worthy of such rewards; this will have improved efficiency and motivation for the workforce. It was also important for Nissan to move away for a high level of uncertainty avoidance and towards performance orientation, to allow the team to work more effectively and understand each others needs to make a more successful and dynamic team. References: Daniels, K. (2006) Employee Relations In An Organisational context. London. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York: Free Press. Conger, J.A., Kanungo, R. (1988), Charismatic Leadership: The Elusive in Organizational Settings, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA Johnson G, Scholes K Whittington R (2005), Exploring Corporate Strategy 8th Edition, Harlow: Prentice Hall. Katz, D., Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organisations, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley. LEWIN, K. (1947).Frontiers in group dynamics: concept, method, and reality in social science in Human Relations, Vol. 1(1), pp.5-42. McLagan, P. Nel, C. (1995). The Age of Participation, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco. Northouse, P. G. (2001). Leadership Theory and Practice, second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Nystrom, P. C., Starbuck, W. H. (1984). To avoid organisational crises, unlearn. Organisational Dynamics, Spring, 53-65. THOMAS, G. (2010). Week 18: Leadership at the Executive Level. Birmingham. Aston University: Geoff Thomas. THOMAS, G. (2010). Week 19: Leading Change in Organisations. Birmingham. Aston University: Geoff Thomas. Tichy, N.M., Devanna, M.A. (1990), The Transformational Leader, John Wiley, New York Yukl, G., Gordon, A., Taber, T. (2002), A hierarchical taxonomy of leadership behavior: integrating a half century of behavior research, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, Vol. 9 pp.15-32 Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in Organisations. 7th Ed. New Jersey. Pearsons. Are Security Threats Real or Imagined? Are Security Threats Real or Imagined? Giulia Valeri Introduction As far as the discipline of International Relations is concerned, security and threat are highly-contested concepts (Baldwin 1997: 10). Far more often than not, their inner nature has been deeply influenced by the historical context in which the two notions were first moulded. Security threats, whether they be real and objective or imagined and subjective, is still a matter to be put into trial by the academics. In turn, if the issue was to be analysed from a non-scholastic point of view, people would refer to those feelings of insecurity that perturb them and influence their daily action. The spread of the belief that todays world is a dangerous universe, where it is best to play safe and to take all the precautions necessary to avoid the risk of being exposed to threatening situations, is rising consistently. But are there any real threats that can eventually put individuals in a position of danger or is this feeling of self-doubt a mere product of policy-makers cunning moves to ac hieve goals, such as gaining wealth and accumulating their power, while letting the individuals sink in growing uncertainties? In other words, are security threats real and objectively calculated, or are they socially constructed and subjectively perceived? The latter interrogative leads us in another direction. One could, in fact, argue that an answer to this controversial issue can only be formulated in the light of the analytical fragmentation and the subsequent interpretation of two dominant approaches in the field of IR, Realism and Social Constructivism. Being aware of such opposing approaches is not only plausible and reasonable from a logical point of view, but it is fundamental in order to solidly ground our understanding of the issue. In this essay, I will first attempt to give a clear explanation of what is meant by security according to the so-called traditional and critical views. Secondly, I will make a distinction between what counts as a referent object for realist a nd constructivists security policies. Thirdly, I will examine the process that an issue has to undergo in order to be prioritized over the others and to become an existential threat worthy of security measures. I will conclude by using a significant case study to analyse and explain why, in the international system, threats to security cannot be tied to a single approach, traditional or modern, but instead need to be reconsidered as a compromise made up of multiple layers. The ontological conceptualisation of security and the shift in the focus of inquiry. Throughout the centuries, the attempt to define security has been a task of major importance for several IR scholars. However clashing theoretical approaches might be, they all shared a common need, i.e. the conceptualisation of security as an ontological basis for any further argumentation. Notwithstanding this premise, not much attention has been devoted to clarifying this notion, therefore there is a persisting disagreement on what security means exactly and on whether it is desirable to give a definition in the first place. The reason why such disagreement has arisen has proved to be related to the various historical periods in which different approaches have developed. More specifically the Cold War, besides being materialised in terms of an Iron Curtain that demarcated the European boundaries between Capitalism and Communism, also acted as an ideological turning point between Realism and Constructivism. Realists point out that security is about safeguarding acquired values. Arnold Wolfers rephrased Walter Lippmans definition, arguing that security is the absence of threats to acquired values (Wolfers 1952: 485). David Baldwin later portrayed security as the low probability of damage to acquired values (Baldwin 1997: 13), arguing that there is way too much optimism in Wolfers absence of threat (Wolfers 1952: 485). These acquired values are nothing more than national independence and territorial integrity (Wolfers 1952: 489), and thus they objectively correspond to the nation-states selfish interests. In turn, constructivists emphasize that the notion of security is a social construct and, as such, should not be bound to a specific referent object. In his People, States Fear Barry Buzan asserts that the search for a referent object of security has to proceed hand-in-hand with that for its necessary conditions (Buzan 1991: 26). As the reader might have noticed, Security is usually discussed in terms of enumeration of new threats and the identification of capabilities needed to counter them, but there is little examination of the meaning of security as such (Wibben, Human Security: Toward an Opening: ) The clashing tension between the realist theorization and the constructivist approach comes to blows when trying to establish what the referent object of security studies should be. Should it always be the state or should it rather be relative to the questioned sector? This problematic derives from the significant shift in focus that has taken place, alongside a massive change in the balance of history as a result of the end of the Cold War. A realistic perspective: security threats are real and objectively analysed. A traditional approach to security threats has to be considered in the light of an objective assessment of the world out there or as it is. Realists act as an elite of scientists with very fixed conceptions of the surrounding environment. As such, they feel the need to adopt a scientific approach to knowledge (Browning, 2013: 13), meaning that they look at reality in an objective way and they hold a static state-centric vision. Instead of bolstering substantial changes, they pessimistically dictate how to best cope with the world as it is (Browning, 2013: 13). Therefore, it comes as no surprise that the referent object of security studies is the state, and threats to security are all those directly posed to the state, all those menacing the survival of its core values. The nation-state is presented as the guarantor of security and, as such, it has the duty to act in a way that assures the safety of its boundaries. This entails every action to be inextricably tied to the states assump tions. Realists are convinced that the term security is the equivalent of national security interest (Wolfers, 1952: 481). As the US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger put it, how realistically we perceive our national interests is a core security concern (Kissinger, 1976: 182). Exempli gratia, in the international system -which is anarchic- where egoistic and self-interested individuals proliferate, absolute security is irredeemable, and thus states believe that the only way to secure themselves from external military threats is to increase their military forces. Yet by doing so, other states might be led to think that policies of armament are objective synonyms of imminent attacks and, consequently, of real and tangible menaces. In the field of International Relations, this ironic cycle of unintended provocations (Kanji, 2003: 2) is often referred to as the security dilemma, i.e. the belief that increasing ones security means rising insecurity for others as each interprets its own measures as defensive and measures of others as potentially threatening (Herz, 1951: 7). At this point, one could legitimately ask: If everybody claims to perceive real threats, how is one supposed to identify real menaces, if present, with objectivity? Put in another way: Are all military affairs to be considered as real threats or are they real threats only in conditions of international anarchy? As the constructivist Wendt argued anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt 1992: 395), claiming that what is presented as a real threat in international anarchy is not necessarily a real threat in this world. Therefore, can one assume that threats are objectively the same regardless of their political allocation? The constructivist approach: security threats are socially constructed. How the community moulds the concept of securitization. In Wendtianian terms, a security threat is what actors make of it and, thus, by no means can they be objectively assessed. Unlike realists, constructivists act as analysts in charge of presenting how the general public and their leaders mutually construct dangers (Dannreuther 2007: 42), thereby framing our experience of the world. In their Security: a new framework of analysis Buzan, Weaver and De Wilde -prominent members of the Copenhagen School[1] argue that Security is when an issue is presented as posing an existential threat to a designed referent object. The special nature of security threats justifies the use of extraordinary measures to handle them. (Buzan, Waever, De Wilde 1998: 21) Before discussing how an issue, being prioritized over other issues, is presented as an existential threat, it is of essential importance to define what we mean by existential threat in the first place. An existential threat is whatever threatens the safety of somebody or something. As opposed to realists, who unceasingly commit themselves to a scientific state-centric vision, constructivists point out the need for each and every threat to be analysed in relation to the referent object of the sector in question, while sectors have been categorised as military, political, economic, societal and environmental. As for the military sector, the state is the entity that can possibly be in danger. For this reason, however much traditional security studies would try to pass off peacekeeping and humanitarian interventions as menacing in their nature, both might not be regarded as an existential threat to the nation-state. In the political sector, it is sovereignty that is the principle that c an be existentially threatened, so that Brexit, for instance, is the most prominent deterrent to the European Union. In the economic sector, the referent objects are firms, and the threat of bankruptcy may act as an ultimatum for their existence, while collective identities and individual species are respectively referent objects of the societal and environmental sector. One might rightly wonder: What, who and how is an issue transformed into a matter of security or shown to be existentially threatened? Buzan et al. asserts that the answer lies in a key-term, i.e. securitization. Securitization is the process by which a general issue is recognised as an existential threat. Yet this process is built up through consequential steps in which two actors play a key-role, the securitizing actor and the audience. The securitizing actor, alias a political leader, is someone who performs the securitizing move, rhetorically identified as the speech act[2]. The task consists in declaring a state of emergency by recurring to apocalyptic statements, such as If we do not tackle this problem, everything else will be irrelevant (because we will not be here or will not be free to deal with it in our own way). (Buzan, Waever, De Wilde 1998: 21) If and only if the securitizing move raises consensus and it is generally accepted by the audience, the issue is successfully securitized and it becomes an existential threat. Donald Trumps securitizing move, i.e. the Muslim ban, cannot be considered as being successfully securitized because the general public hasnt legitimated the speech act. Contrariwise, war is an empirical example of a successful securitization that, being so recurrent, ends up being institutionalized. Once an issue is securitized, it moves out of the realm of normal politics into the realm of emergency politics, where it can be dealt with swiftly and without the normal (democratic) rules and regulations of policy-making (Taureck 2006: 54; Buzan et al. 1998: 24). The securitizing actor and the audience democratically negotiate and establish what existential threats are under which circumstances. As Buzan et al. underline, security is a self-referential practice, because it is in this practice that the issue becom es a security issue -not because a real threat exists (Buzan et al. 1998: 24). From a constructivist point of view, the realists presumption of assessing threats objectively goes beyond humans means. Threats are in fact inter-subjectively constructed rather than being natural or inevitable (Newmann 2001: 247) since what constitutes a threat for one is not necessarily the referent object for the other (Buzan et al. 1998: 30). How social constructivism has challenged the traditional realistic view. Case study: nuclear weapons are real or imagined threats? almost anything can be a threat CATASTROPHIC, TOO pessimistic and deterministic (timeless and irrevocable)nature of the threats, analysis of the world in itself! assumption: It is out of humans domain to establish which threats are really threatening survival, they are inevitable and there is nothing to do except for facing the crude reality. It is not possible to consider a nuclear weapon in every case a threat. What if the missil tank is a peacekeeping force? At the same time, it is illogical to affirm that a nuvlear bomb of a powerful state is threating whereas a bomb of allies doesnt pose any threat. SELFISH construction of threats: with the excuse of needing to shiftthe focus of enwuiry of the individuals, impact of ideas and values (newmnn, 247). eventually defyning the concept of human security, they ended up prioritizing issues according to the selfish interests of the securitizing actor. For constructivists try to push the notion of human security forward, they somehow end up shadowing the selfish construction of security threats. Both bigo and wibben when experts push for particular forms in which security of humans ought to be prioritized. Bigo showed how the securitizing actor together with the general public has securitized immigration. Issues are prioritized according to selfish interest.   Wibben makes an important point that our conceptions of security come from specific political visions, underpinned by certain ontological and epistemological assumptions. For instance, when experts call for elevating human security as a security concern, they are pushing for particular forms in which the security of humans ought to be prioritised. I Politicians have used the policy of securitization to satisfy their own interests, being legitimated to do whatever through the speech act. Murray Edelman has explained how the social construct of the politicalspectacle works.He has demonstrated how the construction of situations as problems is useful for politicians: the politicians can manage them in order to justify their own authority. It enablesthem, for example, to negate other problems or to transform struc-tural difficulties into easy targets. (Bigo 2002: 68-69) the presupposition that it is possible to control the flow of individuals at the borders of thestate (bigo 1992:69) Murray Edelman, Pià ¨ces et rà ¨gles du jeu politique (Paris: Seuil, 1991),a translation of his Constructing the Political Spectacle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), with a specific and important foreword7 Chandler (Security Dialogue, 2008): human security has reinforced rather than challenged existing policy frameworks and is too easily co-opted by political elites. Security is a social construct with the meaning ofsoceurity depending of what is done with it. taureck THESIS Threats are real in the sense that there is sth threating the survival of the individuals, yet this cannot be objectively assessed and it is not deterministically given They are imagined in the minds of the politicians andthen presented as threatening, yet it would be irrational to claim that the speech act has no correspondence to the external reality. . they are mediated by the meaning we ourselves give to nuclear weapons rather than to reality e.g. Constructivist assumption: a nuclear weapon doesnt pose a threat by itself (ARGUABLY YES) Why the US view North Koreas nuclear weapons as a threat and not Britains? UK Prime Minister Tony Blairs securitisation of Saddam Husseins WMD programme for the British public in the lead up to the 2003 invasion is a useful case study here. Depending on our reading of the Copenhagen School, the securitisation of Saddam and his WMD programme may have occurred exclusively through public representations depicting the regime and its WMD programme as imminently threatening, through the vote in Parliament legitimising http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/1232/1/WRAP_McDonald_0671572-pais-270709-mcdonald_securitisation_and_construction_of_security_ejir_forthcoming_2008.pdf 23 Blairs deployment of troops, or even at the point of invasion itself. While the latter might seem the least likely reading, The system is not deterministically given Brhaviors are socially constructed and can therefore change. (newmann, 247). Threats are socially constructed rather than being natural or inevitable: identity and interest derive from the social processes of interaction leading to expectations of costs and benefits attached with different types of behaviour within a system (newmann, 248) Constructivists: Finally, three important constituents of a speech act are: its internal features (the security form, grammar of security, enunciation of an existential threat and so on); social conditions regarding the position of authority of the securitizing actor (how easily would the audience accept the claims of the securitizing actor); and features of the alleged threat (a tank is more threat-like than a comb, for instance; or to use our example above, a North Korea bomb is more threat-like than a British bomb for America because of the institutionalisation of the North Korean threat). Realists: whoever the nuclear weapon belongs to, it is a threat. A foreign tank crossing the border. Conclusion? Threats to security are real and tangible. One cannot deny that whoever is the owner of a nuclear weapon the presence of a nuclear weapon is menacing the international security commission. However, saying that threats are real is misleading and too generic. what each state perceives as a threat is a variable. allocation Rather, it is a blurred misrepresentation of the world out there. This is to highlight the fact that what is regarded as a real threat in anarchy, being what states make of it, is not an objective reflection of the real threats. It is simply a reflection of the dangers out there. , provided that actions are unavoidably bounded to mere states assumptions Is not insecurity of any kind an evil from which any rational policy maker would want to rescue his country? (Wolfers, National Security: 494) The world is not a universe of all against all From a real basis, security threats are developed and constructed according to the will and mis)perceptions of policy-makers. 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[1] The Copenhagen School is a school of security studies, which was established in 1983 by Barry Buzan with his first publication of People, States Fear. [2] The term speech act is rooted in the linguistic philosophy of J. L. Austin and John Saerle and it emblematically represents the rhetorical structure of securitization.